Programming Languages

A cross-reference of the general-purpose programming languages documented across this site, gathered here in one place for readers who arrive by language rather than by topic — most references below also remain listed under their own topic area (Web Development, Backend Development, Apps → Android) for readers who arrive that way instead; C, C++, Objective-C, C# and Swift have no such secondary home and live only here.

Sections

  • JavaScript Development — modern ECMAScript, core browser APIs, and the surrounding developer-tooling ecosystem, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • TypeScript Reference — the typed superset of JavaScript: the type system and structural typing, unions and narrowing, interfaces, generics and type-level programming, the utility types, satisfies and assertions, modules and declaration files, tsconfig and the compiler, decorators, and JavaScript interop and migration, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • Python Reference — the Python language itself: core types and control flow, functions and scope, OOP and decorators, modern features — type hints, dataclasses, asyncio — the standard library, and unit testing with pytest and mocking, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • Java Reference — the Java language and its standard library: language fundamentals, object-oriented programming, records and sealed classes, pattern matching, generics, the Collections Framework, streams, java.time, I/O and NIO.2, concurrency and virtual threads, the module system, and unit testing with JUnit 5 and Mockito, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • Kotlin Reference — the Kotlin language on the JVM: language fundamentals, object-oriented and functional programming, the type system and null safety, collections, coroutines and flows, and Kotlin on Android, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • C Reference — the C language and its standard library, targeting C23 (ISO/IEC 9899:2024): language fundamentals, pointers and the memory model, dynamic allocation and storage duration, the preprocessor and generic programming, the standard library, undefined behavior and the sanitizers, threads and atomics, and the toolchain, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • C++ Reference — C++23: language fundamentals, object-oriented programming, generics and compile-time programming (templates, concepts, constexpr), the standard library (containers, ranges, std::expected), concurrency and coroutines, and design/performance/tooling, plus a downloadable cheat sheet. Starts from C and diverges: see how the two relate.

  • Objective-C Reference — modern Objective-C as implemented by Apple Clang: language fundamentals, objects, classes and messaging, Foundation values and collections, memory management with ARC, the runtime and dynamism, error handling, concurrency, Objective-C++/C and Swift interoperability, and code organisation and tooling, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • C# Reference — the C# language and the .NET base class library, targeting C# 14 on .NET 10 (LTS): language fundamentals, types and object-oriented programming, records and pattern matching, generics and nullability, LINQ and expression trees, exceptions and the garbage collector, async/await and threading, spans and native interop, and the project, tooling and testing story, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.

  • Swift Reference — the Swift language and its standard library, targeting Swift 6: language fundamentals, optionals and pattern matching, types and object-oriented modelling, protocols and generics, error handling, ARC and memory safety, structured concurrency with actors and Sendable, result builders, macros and regular expressions, Foundation and Codable, C/Objective-C/C++ interoperability, and the Swift Package Manager, build tooling and Swift Testing, plus a downloadable cheat sheet.